Iran and Egypt under the control of Medina. Military strategy, religious fervour and the weakness of the opposition contributed to the success of the Arabs. Further campaigns were launched by the third caliph, Uthman, to extend the control to Central Asia. Within a decade of the death of Muhammad, the Arab-Islamic state controlled the vast territory between the Nile and the Oxus.
These lands remain under Muslim rule to this day. In all the conquered provinces, the caliphs imposed a new administrative structure headed by governors ( amirs ) and tribal chieftains ( ashraf ). The central treasury ( bait al-mal ) obtained its revenue from taxes paid by Muslims as well as its share of the booty from raids. The caliph’s soldiers, mostly Bedouins, settled in camp cities at the edge of the desert, such as Kufa and Basra, to remain within reach of their natural habitat as well as the caliph’s command.
The ruling class and soldiers received shares of the booty and monthly payments ( ata ). The non-Muslim population retained their rights to property and religious practices on payment of taxes ( kharaj and jiziya ). Jews and Christians were declared protected subjects of the state ( dhimmis ) and given a large measure of autonomy in the conduct of their communal affairs. M AP : The Islamic Lands Expansion of Islam under Muhammad Central Islamic lands c.
Political expansion and unification did not come easily to the Arab tribesmen. With territorial expansion, the unity of the umma became threatened by conflicts over the distribution of resources and offices. The ruling class of the early Islamic state comprised almost entirely the Quraysh of Mecca. The third caliph, Uthman ( - ), also a Quraysh, packed his administration with his own men to secure greater control.
This further intensified the Meccan character of the state and the conflict with the other tribesmen. Opposition in Iraq and Egypt, combined with opposition in Medina, led to the assassination of Uthman. With Uthman’s death, Ali became the fourth caliph. The rifts among the Muslims deepened after Ali ( - ) fought two