break-up of the caliphate. Books were written in Persian about dynasties, cities or regions to explore the unity and variety of the world of Islam. Geography and travel ( rihla ) constituted a special branch of adab . These combined knowledge from Greek, Iranian and Indian books with the observations of merchants and travellers.
In mathematical geography, the inhabited world was divided into seven climes (singular iqlim) parallel with the Equator, corresponding to our three continents. The exact position of each city was determined astronomically. Muqaddasi’s (d. ) descriptive geography, Ahsan al-Taqasim (The Best Divisions) is a comparative study of the countries and peoples of the world and a treasure trove of exotic curiosities.
Geography and general history were combined in Muruj al-Dhahab ( Golden Meadows ) of Masudi (written in ) to illustrate the wide variety of worldly cultures. Alberuni’s famous Tahqiq ma lil-Hind (History of India ) was the greatest attempt by an eleventh-century Muslim writer to look beyond the world of Islam and observe what was of value in another cultural tradition. By the tenth century, an Islamic world had emerged which was easily recognisable by travellers. Religious buildings were the greatest external symbols of this world.
Mosques, shrines and tombs from Spain to Central Asia showed the same basic design – arches, domes, minarets and open courtyards – and expressed the spiritual and practical needs of Muslims. In the first Islamic century, the mosque acquired a distinct architectural form (roof supported by pillars) which transcended regional variations. The mosque had an open courtyard ( sahn ) where a fountain or pond was placed, leading to a vaulted hall which could accommodate long lines of worshippers and the prayer leader ( imam ). Two special features were located Mosaic floor in the bath-house of the palace at Khirbat al- Mafjar, Palestine, eighth century.
Imagine the caliph enthroned on the tree; the scene below depicts peace and war. T HE C ENTRAL I SLAMIC L ANDS T HEMES IN W ORLD H ISTORY inside the hall: a niche ( mihrab ) in the wall indicating the direction