What is Psychology?

Activity . psychologists study the processes of perception, learning, memory, thinking, and motivation, etc., using experiment as their method of enquiry, whereas physiological psychologists attempt to examine physiological bases of these behaviours. Developmental psychologists study qualitative and quantitative changes in behaviour from the beginning of human life to its end, whereas social psychologists focus on the study of experience and behaviour of individuals as they take place in social contexts. Theme : Human behaviour is a function of the attributes of persons and environment.

Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous equation B = f(P,E) – which suggests that behaviour is the product of a person and her/ his environment. What this equation simply tells us is that the variations we find in human behaviour are largely due to the fact that persons differ with respect to their various attributes because of their genetic endowments and diverse experiences and so do the environments they are placed in. Here the environment is conceptualised as it is perceived or made sense of by the person. Psychologists have for a long time considered that no two individuals are the same, if one considers their psychological attributes.

They vary with respect to their intelligence, interests, values, aptitudes and various other personality characteristics. In fact, psychological tests came to be constructed to measure such differences. A discipline called, differential psychology, which focused on individual differences emerged and flourished in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Most of it still remains in the form of personality psychology.

Psychologists believe that although, core psychological processes are universal, they are susceptible to individual dispositions. Besides individual differences, psychologists also believe that there are variations in behaviour which occur due to environmental factors. This is a view which psychologists have taken from anthropologists, evolutionary theorists and biologists. Psychologists look for explanations of various psychological phenomena based on individual-environment interactions.

Although it is difficult, psychologists do seek out the relative importance of heredity and environment in explaining human behaviour. Theme : Human behaviour is caused. Most psychologists believe that all human behaviour can be explained in terms of causes which are internal (to the organism) or external having location in the outside environment. Causal explanations are central to all sciences because without understanding them no prediction will be possible.

Although, psychologists look for causal explanations of behaviour, they also realise that simple linear explanations, such as X Causing Y do not hold true. There is no one cause of behaviour. Human behaviour has multiple causes. Psychologists, therefore, look for causal models where a set of interdependent variables are used to explain a behaviour.

When it is said that behaviour has multiple causes, it means that it is difficult to pinpoint one cause of a behaviour because it may itself be caused by another variable, which in turn may be caused by some other. Theme : Understanding of human behaviour is culturally constructed. This is a theme which has recently surfaced. There are psychologists who believe that most psychological theories and models are Euro-American in nature and therefore, do not help us in understanding behaviours in other cultural settings.

Psychologists from Asia, Africa and Latin America have been critical of Euro-American approaches which are propagated as universal. A similar critique is made by feminists who argue that psychology offers a male perspective and ignores the perspective of women. They argue in favour of a dialectical approach which will accommodate both male and female perspectives in understanding human behaviour. Theme : Human behaviour can be controlled and modified through the application of psychological principles.

Why do scientists like to know how certain events can be controlled, be they physical or psychological? Their concern arises from their desire to develop techniques or methods that will improve the quality of human life. Psychologists also seek the same while applying knowledge generated by them. This often requires removal of certain difficulties or adverse conditions that individuals experience in different phases of their life.

Consequently, psychologists make certain interventions into the lives of needy people. This applied role of psychologists has, on the one hand, brought the subject closer to the life of people in general than other social science subjects and in knowing the limits of the applicability of its principles. On the other hand, this role has also been very helpful in popularising psychology as a subject in itself. Thus, several independent branches of psychology have emerged that try to use psychological theories, principles and facts to diagnose and resolve problems related to industrial and organisational settings, clinical services, education, environment, health, community development and so on.

Industrial psychology, organisational psychology, clinical psychology, educational psychology, engineering psychology and sports psychology represent some of the areas in which psychologists are engaged in delivering services to individuals, groups or institutions. Basic vs Applied Psychology It may be noted at this point that various areas put under the rubrics of “basic” and “applied” psychology are identified only on the basis of their emphasis on the study of certain subject matters and broader concerns. There is no sharp cleavage between research and application of psychology. For example, basic psychology provides us with theories and principles that form the basis of application of psychology and applied psychology provides us with different contexts in which the theories and principles derived from research can be meaningfully applied.

On the other hand, research is an integral part of even those fields of psychology that are mainly characterised by or subsumed under the category of application. Due to ever increasing demands of psychology in different settings, many fields that were regarded as primarily “research- oriented” in previous decades, have also gradually turned into “application-oriented”. Newly emerging disciplines like applied experimental psychology, applied social psychology, and applied developmental psychology indicate that in fact all psychology has the potential of application and is basically applied in nature. Thus, there is seemingly no fundamental difference between research and application of psychology.

These activities are highly interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Their mutual interactions and pervasive influences on each other have become so specific that several offshoots have emerged in recent years with very specific emphasis on their subject matters. Thus, ecological psychology, environmental psychology, cross-cultural psychology, biological psychology, space psychology, and cognitive psychology, to mention a few, have come up as new and frontier areas of research and application that previously formed part of other fields of psychology. These newer developments require highly specialised research skills and training on the part of researchers than ever before.

P SYCHOLOGY AND O THER D ISCIPLINES Any discipline, which deals with people, would definitely recognise the relevance of the knowledge of psychology. Similarly psychologists also acknowledge the relevance of other disciplines in understanding human behaviour. This trend has led to the emergence of interdisciplinary approach in the field of psychology. Researchers and scholars in science, social science and humanities have felt the significance of psychology as a discipline.

Figure . clearly shows the relationship of psychology with other disciplines. In studying brain and behaviour, psychology shares its knowledge with neurology, physiology, biology, medicine and computer science. In studying human behaviour (its meaning, growth and development) in a socio-cultural context, psychology shares its knowledge with anthropology, sociology, social work, political science and economics.

In studying mental activities involved in creation of literary texts, music and drama, psychology shares its knowledge with literature, art and music. Some of the major disciplines linked to the field of psychology are discussed below: Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th century, certain concerns that are now part of contemporary psychology like, what is the nature of the mind or how do humans come to know their motivations and emotions were the concerns of philosophers. In the later part of the 19th century, Wundt and other psychologists adopted an experimental approach to these questions and contemporary psychology emerged. Despite the emergence of psychology as a science, it greatly draws from philosophy, particularly with respect to methods of knowing, and various domains of human nature.

Medicine : Doctors have realised that the maxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind, is actually true. A large number of hospitals now employ psychologists. The role of psychologists in preventing people from engaging in health hazardous behaviours and in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimen are some of the important areas where the two disciplines have come together. While treating patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, and the physically challenged, or handling patients in the Intensive Care Unit, and patients during post operative care doctors have also felt the need for psychological counselling.

A successful doctor looks at the psychological as well as physical well-being of the patients. Economics, Political Science and Sociology : As sister social science disciplines, these three have drawn considerably from psychology and have enriched it as well. Psychology has contributed a great deal to the study of micro-level economic behaviour, particularly in understanding consumer behaviour, savings behaviour and in decision- making. American economists have used data on consumer sentiments to predict economic growth.

Three scholars who have worked on such problems have received the Nobel Prize in Economics, namely H. Simon, D. Kahneman and T. Schelling.

Like economics, political science too draws considerably from psychology, particularly, in understanding issues related to exercise of power and authority, nature of political conflicts and their resolutions, and voting behaviour. Sociology and psychology come together to explain and understand the behaviour of individuals within different socio-cultural contexts. Issues related to socialisation, group and collective behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain from both these disciplines. Computer Science : From the very beginning, the effort of computer science has been in mimicking the human mind.

One can see it in terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its memory organised, sequential and simultaneous (read parallel) processing of information. Computer scientists and engineers are seeking to make computers not only more and more intelligent but also machines which can sense and feel. Developments in both these disciplines have brought about significant advancement in the field of cognitive sciences. Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer and a criminologist requires knowledge of psychology in answering such questions as: How well a witness remembers an accident, a street fight, or a murder?

How well can s/he report such facts when taking the witness stand in the court? What factors influence the decision which is taken by the jury? What are the dependable signs of guilt and falsehood? What factors are held important in holding a culprit responsible for her/his action?

What degree of punishment is considered just for a criminal act? Psychologists seek to answer these questions. Currently, a number of psychologists are involved in research on such Fig. .

: Psychology and Other Disciplines Architecture and Engineering Medicine/Psychiatry Computer Science Philosophy Education Music and Fine Arts Sociology Mass Communication Law/Criminology Political Science Economics issues, the answers to which would help the legal system of the country in the future. Mass Communication : The print and the electronic media have entered in our lives in a very big way. They have a major influence on our thinking, attitudes and our emotions. If they have brought us closer together, they have also reduced cultural diversities.

The impact of the media on the formation of attitudes of children and their behaviour is a domain where both these disciplines come together. Psychology also helps in developing strategies for better and effective communication. A journalist in reporting news must know the reader’s interests in the story. Since most stories deal with human events, knowledge of their motives and emotions is very important.

A story will be more penetrating if based upon a background of psychological knowledge and insight. Music and Fine Arts : Music and psychology have converged in many areas. Scientists have made use of music in raising work performance. Music and emotions is another area in which a number of studies have been carried out.

Musicians in India have recently started experimenting with what they call ‘Music Therapy’. In this they use different ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments. The efficacy of music therapy still remains to be proven. Architecture and Engineering : At first glance the relationship between psychology and architecture and engineering would appear improbable.

But such is actually not the case. Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy her/his clients by providing mental and physical space through her design and satisfy aesthetically. Engineers must also take into account human habits in their plans for safety, for example, on streets and highways. Psychological knowledge helps in a big way in designing of all mechanical devices and displays.

To sum up, psychology is located at the intersection of many fields of knowledge pertaining to human functioning. P SYCHOLOGISTS AT W ORK Psychologists today work in a variety of settings where they can apply psychological principles for teaching and training people to cope effectively with the problems of their lives. Often referred to as “human service areas” they include clinical counselling, community, school and organisational psychology. Clinical psychologists specialise in helping clients with behavioural problems by providing therapy for various mental disorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, or with stresses at home or at work.

They work either as private practitioners or at hospitals, mental institutions, or with social agencies. They may be involved in conducting interviews and administering psychological tests to diagnose the client’s problems, and use psychological methods for their treatment and rehabilitation. Job opportunities in clinical psychology attract quite a few to this field of psychology. Counselling psychologists work with persons who suffer from motivational and emotional problems.

The problems of their clients are less serious than those of the clinical psychologists. A counselling psychologist may be involved in vocational rehabilitation programmes, or helping persons in making professional choices or in adjusting to new and difficult situations of life. Counselling psychologists work for public agencies such as mental health centres, hospitals, schools, colleges and universities. Community psychologists generally focus on problems related to community mental health.

They work for mental health agencies, private organisations and state governments. They help the community and its institutions in addressing physical and mental health problems. In rural areas they may work to establish a mental health centre. In urban areas they may design a drug rehabilitation programme.

Many community psychologists also work with special populations such as the elderly or the physically or mentally challenged. Besides the redirection and evaluation of various programmes and plans, community based rehabilitation (CBR) is of major interest to community psychologists. School psychologists work in educational systems, and their roles vary according to the levels of their training. For example, some school psychologists only administer tests, whereas others also interpret test results to help students with their problems.

They also help in the formulation of school policies. They facilitate communication between parents, teachers and administrators, and also provide teachers and parents with information about the academic progress of a student. Organisational psychologists render valuable help in dealing with problems that the executives and employees of an organisation tend to face in their respective roles. They provide organisations with consultancy services and organise skill training programmes in order to enhance their efficiency and effectiveness.

Some organisational psychologists specialise in Human Resource Development (HRD), while others in Organisational Development and Change Management programmes. P SYCHOLOGY IN E VERYDAY L IFE The discussion above may have clarified that psychology is not only a subject that satisfies some of the curiosities of our mind about human nature, but it is also a subject that can offer solutions to a variety of problems. These may range from purely personal (for example, a daughter having to face an alcoholic father or a mother dealing with a problem child) to those that may be rooted within the family set up (for example, lack of communication and interaction among family members) or in a larger group or community setting (for example, terrorist groups or socially isolated communities) or may have national or international dimensions. Problems related to education, health, environment, social justice, women development, intergroup relations, etc.

are pervasive. While the solution of these problems may involve political, economic and social reforms, interventions at the individual levels are also needed in order to change. Many of these problems are largely of psychological nature and they result from our unhealthy thinking, negative attitude towards people and self and undesirable patterns of behaviour. A psychological analysis of these problems helps both in having a deeper understanding of these problems and also in finding their effective solutions.

The potential of psychology in solving the problems of life is being realised more and more. Media has played a vital role in this respect. You may have seen on television counsellors and therapists suggesting solutions to a variety of problems related to children, adolescents, adults and the elderly people. You may also find them analysing vital social problems relating to social change and development, population, poverty, interpersonal or intergroup violence, and environmental degradation.

Many psychologists now play an active role in designing and executing intervention programmes in order to provide people with a better quality of life. Hence, it is no surprise that we find psychologists working in diverse settings such as schools, hospitals, industries, prisons, business organisations, military establishments, and in private practice as consultants helping people solve problems in their respective settings. Besides helping you in rendering social service to others, the knowledge of psychology is also personally relevant to you in your day- to-day life. The principles and methods of psychology that you will learn in this course should be made use of in analysing and understanding yourself in relation to others.

It is not that we do not think about ourselves. But very often, some of us think very highly of ourselves and any feedback that contradicts our opinion about ourselves is rejected because we engage in what is called a defensive behaviour. In some other cases, persons come to acquire a habit of running down themselves. Both conditions do not permit us to grow.

We need to have a positive and balanced understanding of ourselves. You . What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.

. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the discipline of psychology? . Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.