Introduction · Part 3

Tuscany E = San Marino Austrian Empire France Piedmont-Sardinia Russia German States Boundary of German Confederation O T T O M A N E M P I R E EUROPE AFTER THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA Hamburg PRUSSIA N E T H E R L A N D S Europe in Turmoil soon began to feel that without organisation and unity, no permanent improvement was possible. So they strove to establish trade unions. When trade unions arose, the government first declared these unions illegal. Many of the frontline leaders, as we have seen in the previous lesson, were imprisoned or banished. In , however, labour unions were legalised. With the rise of trade unions, an alternate system to capitalism was conceived and socialism was used as a plank by many to attack the state and defend the interests of the working class. The working class organising into the Chartist Movement in England and later posing a serious challenge, as the Paris Commune did in France, to the capitalist order, and the unscrupulous measures adopted by the capitalists in connivance with the capitalist state to crush labour struggles are highlighted in this lesson. Concert of Europe: Founded by major European Powers, Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain, in post-Napoleonic era, it worked for the preservation of European order and balance of power. Under the pretext of political status quo, the great powers under the aegis of Concert of Europe intervened and imposed their collective will on states threatened by internal rebellion during the so- called Metternich Era ( – ). Metternich Under Napoleon Italy had been reduced to three political divisions. This step towards unity was destroyed by the Congress of Vienna in . Eight states were set up and the whole of Northern Italy was handed over to the German-speaking Austrians. Germany was organised into a confederation of thirty eight states, governed by a Diet presided over by Austria. But the cause of nationality was not lost either in Italy or Germany. Both Italy and Germany unified and emerged as nation states.