serfs due to the caste classification and also due to the granting of various privileges and lands to others. The practice of lease-holding reduced the permanent tenants to tenants at will (which means tenants could be evicted without notice). The farmers were required to pay various taxes. Industry: Mining and Metallurgy Mining and metallurgy was one of the most flourishing industries during the Gupta period.
Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa make frequent mention of the existence of mines. The rich deposits of iron ore from Bihar and copper from Rajasthan were mined extensively during this period. The list of metals used apart from iron were gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bell- metal, mica, manganese, antimony, red chalk ( sanssilajata ) and red arsenic. Blacksmiths were next only to agriculturists in importance in the society.
Metal was used for the manufacture of various domestic implements, utensils and weapons. The improvement in the ploughshare, with the discovery of iron, for deep ploughing and for increasing cultivation happened during this period. The most important and visible evidence of the high stage of development in metallurgy is XI History - Lesson - - The Guptas List of Different Kinds of Taxes Tax Nature Bhaga King’s customary share of the produce normally amounting to one-sixth of the produce paid by cultivators Bhoga Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the village had to provide to the king Kara A periodic tax levied on the villagers (not a part of the annual land tax) Bali A voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory. It was an oppressive tax.
Udianga Either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police stations or a water tax. Hence, it was also an extra tax. Uparikara Also an extra tax. Scholars give different explanations about what it was collected for.
Hiranya Literally, it means tax payable on gold coins, but in practice, it was probably the king’s share of certain crops paid in kind. Vata-Bhuta Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for the winds ( vata ) and