Learning Objectives

Learning Objectives To understand the characteristics of the Chalcolithic period in India To know the Megalithic-Iron Age cultures of India To get acquainted with Aryans, non-Aryans and Vedic cultures To learn the distinction between the Early Vedic and Later Vedic societies XI History - Lesson - - Early India: The Chalcolithic, Megalithic, Iron Age and Vedic Cultures production and population. A strong cultural foundation was laid across India during this period, which finally culminated in the Early Historic period. The extensive foundations for the village settlements of India were laid during this period. Literature of the Vedic Age The Vedas ( Vid = to know, Vidya ) are one of the earliest known texts to have been composed in India. The language of the Vedas is described as Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are four: Rig is the oldest, and the others being Yajur , Sama and Atharva. The Vedic texts were memorized and orally transmitted by Brahmins from generation to generation. They were written down in the later period, after the introduction of writing. The earliest known written manuscripts of the Vedas date to the -11th century CE. They contain information about the polity, society, religion and philosophy, and hence they are a source for writing history. The main collections of Vedic hymns are called samhitas . The Rig Vedic-samhita is the earliest text. The Rig Veda is dated to between and BCE. The Rig Veda contains books. Books to are the earliest and the Books , , and are assigned to a later period. Samhitas are ritualistic texts, and they explain the social and religious importance of rituals. Each samhita has added texts called brahmanas , which have commentaries on the hymns and rituals. Each brahmana has an aranyaka (forest text) and an upanishad . The aranyakas contain mystical ritual instructions to be undertaken in secret by the sages who live in the forests. Upanishads deal with philosophical enquiries. The Yajur , Sama and Atharva Vedas are dated to a slightly later period. The samhitas of the Sama , Yajur and Atharva Vedas , and the brahmanas , aranyakas and upanishads attached to the Vedas are the Late Vedic texts. The Sama Veda was composed in musical notes. The Yajur Veda has rituals and hymns. The Atharva Veda contains charms and magical spells. Zend Avesta The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks about the lands and gods of the people speaking the Indo-Iranian languages. It has references to the regions of northern and north-western parts of India. It has terms which show linguistic similarity with the Vedas. This text is an indirect evidence that the early home of the Aryans was outside the Indian subcontinent.